Importance of play Essay

Introduction: I will be doing a project on which gender has more influence to play in home corner and what play also interacts with children? The reason I am doing this projects is because this project is going to help me find out the differences in each gender’s role. I want to find why children at the age of 4-5yrs do not play with the other gender (e.g. Girls with boys and boys with girls.) The three questions I will be focusing on are 1) How gender effects home corner? 2) How play promotes children’s relationship with peers and adults in home -corner? 3) Does resources of multicultural determine the gender of home corner? Home corner is a role-play that supports an individual in their learning about knowledge and understanding of the world. Play enables children to learn by exploring, to practise skills, to learn to use imagination in order to understand how things work and to understand social roles. Culture is a set of learned beliefs, values and behaviours the way of life shared by the members of a society. (www.saa.org/publications/sampler/terms.html) Culture is the collection of values and norms associated with the group. Culture is intended to describe all the features of a group that make it different and distinct from other groups. Culture differences due to different life and learning experiences can effect communication and understanding. Gender is the sex of an individual (boy and girl or man and woman). Literature Review: History of play In 1873, Spencer â€Å"declared that play activity, driven by surplus energy is directed towards activities which have a prominent role in the animal’s/person’s life. He emphasised a close relationship between art and play saying that â€Å". Art is but one kind of play.† There are many types of plays the children learn from: Sensory-motor play. Sensory/ Messy play touching, smelling, tasting and looking helps the child explores and experience the world through their senses, they then begins to explore objects, materials and toys outside themselves. Games with rules. Playing games with rules helps the child understand that you need to share and give a turn when playing with some toys. It gives the child an opportunity to learn about rules, which help a child become more disciplined and helps them share with each other. Symbolic play Children often represent their social world through symbolic play. Children signal that they are about to start, or change playing; by various methods such as saying â€Å"do you want to play with me?† â€Å"Now I’m a monster† and close the playing by negating the roles â€Å"I’m not dead any more† marking boundaries of when children enter and leave the play. Symbolic play enables the experience of subjective realities in alternative environments, whilst also sharing this experience with others. The participants agree To create an alternative reality. Abused children find symbols or metaphors to describe their pain, thus allowing them to explore past relationships in a multi-dimensional way and make some meaning and resolution of their past. Freud identified his theories of play as a repetition of symbolic games being the ego attempt to repeat actively a traumatic event, previously experienced passively, thus allowing the child to gain mastery over the event. From this, a psychoanalytic approach to child analysis developed which used play to interpret the child’s unconscious motivation. The two people, on the whole, who were responsible for this development, are Anna Freud and Melanie Klein, through their work with neurotic children. ( http://www.geocities.com/Wellesley/9158/play.htm) Recently there have been many theorists who have written many articles and journals about children and their imagination in play. Every child is unique, and has his/her own imagination that he/she can’t share with his friends or anyone else. Most theorists have different views about how play is important in the child’s life (e.g. Albert Bandura (born in 1925). Albert Bandura argues that people learn from what they see and hear, and that people often imitate or copy others without external reinforcement and conditioning association-taking place. Bandura argued that people are not only influenced by reinforcement but they are also influenced by what they see in the media and what happens to other people. Bandura argues that people will model themselves on other people who are rewarded or ‘reinforced’. Learning undoubtedly influences human development, conditioning and imitation in learning how local environment is about influencing people at different levels. Home-corner: Most children spend their time in home corner and try many things that they have seen from other people e.g. pretending to cook like they might have seen mummy cooking in the kitchen, or trying to feed the dolly as their mummy feeds them, or try dressing them selves etc†¦ â€Å"By providing a setting for role play, the home corner allows children to make sense of their immediate world.† By looking at other people, children try to imitate and pretend to be someone else with their friends and perform familiar roles (e.g. mom, dad etc†¦) Children also react the events they have experienced in the past or present like going to the doctor, talking to the policeman, looking at the builders, paying the money to the shop keeper when gone for shopping, or making noises when they see a fire engine going past them or acting out as fire fighters using their imagination and what they do as a fireman, talking on the phone, visiting daddy, having a birthday party, dressing up to ‘go out,’ celebrating holidays, going to church, and attending weddings, funerals, picnics, and movies. â€Å"By providing a setting for role-play, the home corner allows children to make sense of their immediate world. Children have numerous opportunities to work together, express their feelings, and use language to communicate roles and respond to one another’s needs and requests.† Childcare and education, Third Edition, Tina Bruce and Carolyn Meggit, (hodder and Stoughton), 2004. Role-play, it has been argued, is used to provide help to children so they can come to terms with their own experiences, ‘to play over and over the important happenings of their lives’ (Plowden et al., 1967) Other researchers suggest that play is held together by children’s knowledge of scripts, that is, by schematic representations of events including information about the temporal and causal organization of a set of related acts, which are obligatory and which optional, and the associated props and roles (French et al., 1985). Gà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ncà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (1987) argues that children’s shared (public) script knowledge allows them to establish a general framework for their play and provides the grounds for the further negotiation of play through individual (private) contributions. Play: Play also helps people to meet emotional needs and adult ‘recreation’ often involves ‘play’. (Childcare and education, Third Edition, Tina Bruce and Carolyn Meggit, (Hodder and Stoughton), 2004.) Skinner (1938) believed that conceptualized play as a learning response to a set of stimuli (e.g. toys). In his view, play was seen as a problem solving behavior because it is complex and has investigative features. Bateson (1972) considers play as a means of developing children’s communication skills. Piaget was the first theorist who separated social and emotional development but focused play toward cognitive development. He argues that play contributes to intellectual development through the process of ‘accommodation’ and ‘assimilation’ He believes that accommodation is the main sort of play that children achieve. They take this idea and fit in the knowledge they know and understand. According to Vygotsky, play is a leading activity of child development as it supports all the aspects of child development. This involves the ability to mentally represent experiences and what happens through play. He also made a note that make-believe play is socially and culturally determined, and as children explore this type of play they are depending on their understanding of the social life and rules of their communities. Gender: In the past decades there were activities in the society that men thought women could do and activities that women thought men could do. In the twentieth century there were gender roles for people and that worked according to the government (e.g. the boys have greater access than girls in education and men are over representing in important decision-making). On the present day, when children grow up probably at the age of 3yrs to 4yrs, some children tend to recognise themselves as boys and girls. In some plays, children stereotype other children and tend to play with the same sex (i.e. boys with boys, girls with girls). In most play boys tend to play freely and tend to be more active while girls take their time in exploring. Children don’t understand that in some activities girls can contribute just as much as boys can. Most children as boys, think that girls can’t be policeman and boys can’t look after babies. At the age of five, children tend to form a group of the same gender and won’t let the other gender play with them. Looking at their parents or their relative, boys think and also set in their minds that girls are suppose to be looking after babies and families, and boys are suppose to be working hard like, building a house, or doctors, or fire-fighters etc†¦ some children imitate other people’s language. They keep their concentration away from girls and also try to stay away from girls. Children are more knowledgeable about the wide variety of gender stereotypes and gender roles. At the same time they have open minds about what the males and females can do and this continues in the adolescence and this kind of thinking gets stronger. Gender stereotyping affects behaviour only when children incorporate those beliefs into their own gender identities, self-perceptions of what they can do at play in school and further perceptions in society. Gender Roles: John Locke believed that children are born as blank slate. He believes that children are tabula rasa. John Locke also believes children are born with nothing at all, and all kinds of experiences and responsibilities can shape them up in any way they wish, e.g. rewarding them for good behaviour not with sweets or money but appraisals and approvals. Jean Jacques Rousseau disagrees with John Locke and believes that children are not blank slate and children are filled with all the knowledge with the adult instruction. Children only need to know what is right and what is wrong and are mature enough to learn themselves. Piaget does not believe that children’s learning depends on the reinforcement, such as reward from the adults. According to his cognitive development theory, children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate the world. Vygotsky (1934/1987): According to Vygotsky social interaction in particular, cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable member of society is necessary for children to acquire the way of thinking and behaving that make up a community’s culture. Vygotsky believed that as adults and more expert’s peers help children master culturally meaningful activities, the communication between them becomes part of children’s thinking. Bronfenbrenner emphasizes that the developing person is embedded in a series of environmental systems that interact with one another and with the individual to influence development. Methodology: The way I am going to be working towards my project is by having a structure-where I will be observing children in the home corner. Firstly I will ask at least six boys to play in the home corner. I will be observing their communication with other children. Then I will be taking brief notes of what they are playing with. I will also be observing the situation they will be playing at. When boys are playing they tend to chose their own activities that interests them and choose as much as character they like in their play. The main purpose of observation will e to see how they engage with role play and also what language is used during the role play.Boys are more likely to go towards action situations instead of sitting down to play. Boys tend to be noisier that girls and tend to make friends with children who have high confidence. Boys don’t like any equipment that they think girls play with or they think is for girls. Children tend to play out the situation they have been through e.g. boys mostly tend to be a policeman because they have telephone, guns, and different tools hanged to their belt. Boys when walking around with any thing in their hands they tend to use their imagination of that thing e.g. telephone made out of mega blocks or a toy drill machine they think it is gun. The reason I used a plastic drill machine is because boys tend to play with tools, which have some sort of action, more than girls. In a boy’s imagination if a toy or furniture is broken they start banging the toy/furniture until it is not fixed. I will then be observing the character boys are pretending to play with their friends and ask them few questions like what character they are playing? And observe them about who and how they relate to the situation to them? Then I will have six girls playing in the home corner with free equipment. I know girls are then to play quieter then boys and use their imagination to their familiar person (e.g. mum, dad, or their favourite auntie that they like very much). Just like the boys girls tend to choose their own activities and they prefer those, which are quietly done. They play toward kitchens and babies and looking after other children etc. I will be observing the girls in the same way as boys. I will then ask the children to play together (six boys and six girls). I will be observing their conversation towards each other and try to see if the boys contribute as much to the group as the girls they are playing with. I will also observe them in their situation /events plays, and see if boys tend to play with girls in their activities or if girls tend to play in boys activities. The method techniques I will be using are narrative report, which will help me to write a brief note on what the children are doing, their attitudes, communication and actions towards the other gender and play. Time sampling which will help me to observe the time each gender to play with each other and time they tend to spend in the home corner individually and in group events sampling, which will help me observe whether the child is playing and what materials/equipment/toys they are using. When there is a role-play, the setting needs to be free role-play for children to explore and express their feeli ngs and imaginations in the play. I would also like to observe how children interact with peers and adults around them. This will help me to see if children are different with peers and adults (e.g. if a child is talking to their friend he/she is talking freely, but if the child is talking to the adult he/she will watch his/her word and behaviour what they would be talking about.) in my method I would also like to observe the children about their culture and observe them if they are aware about the attitude, beliefs, and values about their culture. I will be able to see if they are expressing their feelings towards the knowledge that is given to them by their parents and expressing them in the setting with other children. I will also be observing the play that effects culture, gender and environment in the setting for the children. In my method techniques I would also want to interview the staff about the behaviour of the children in the home corner. The materials in the home corner that I am going to use for both genders, and have my observation done according to the materials I provide for them in the setting are the following: * Dolls – female and male, commercial and homemade, to reflect the skin colours, hair styles, facial features, and special needs of children in the programme * Stuffed animals * Doll beds, blankets, pram, front/back pack * Baby rattles, bibs, bottles, nappies, clothes (trousers and dresses) * Broom, dustpan * Toaster (wooden or de-electrified), clocks (wind-up or de-electrified) * Mirror * Two telephones * Small stepladder * Dress-up clothes and accessories-hats, shoes, purses, wallets, briefcases, scarves, head wraps, jewellery, masks, neckties, belts, suspenders * Lunch boxes, picnic hamper, laundry basket * Toolbox and tools * Envelopes, cancelled stamps, seals, stickers, junk mail * Typewriter, keyboard * Sturdy cardboard boxes * Low, movable partitions * Rocking chair or easy chair * Blankets, sheets, quilts, pillows, beach towels, sleeping bags * Photos of programme’s children and their families * Wall hangings reflecting local community * Real plants, watering can * Real cooking equipment (stored out of children’s reach and used only with adult supervision) * Hotplate, toaster oven * Electric frying pan * Reference photos and recipes * Cookbooks, picture recipes * Field-trip photos (for role-play ideas) Props- * Home-builders’ props: toolbox, tools, empty paint cans, brushes, pipe fittings * Doctor’ props: lab coats, plasters, gauze, stethoscope, cloth bandages * Farm props: overalls, pail, straw, animal brush, empty feed bag * Petrol-station props: empty oil can, hose, rags, empty paste-wax can, jack, spanner, steering wheel, hubcaps * Fire-station props: hats, raincoats, wellies boots, hoses * Restaurant props: hats, aprons, cups, straws, serviettes, menus, order pads and pencils * Fishing props: fishing poles, nets, heavy boots, buckets, oars, petrol can. When young children are watching television they are aware that TV images can represent reality. Since the 1950’s researchers and public citizens have concerns about attitudes and behaviour that children have by watching T.V. Most studies believe that TV is great impact on children by violence, other researchers focus on TV that teaches children to be undesirable gender and ethnic stereotype. Children who are aggressive learn from the media through TV because most of the cartoons have violence and they teach children that being violence and aggressive solves the problem and all the children like to have a go on whatever they see that they think is interesting by watching in the television. Violence has an impact not only on parents but also in peer relationships. Ethnic and stereotype is another impact on children by T.V. Even though females are involved in more careers but on T.V the media has still shown that women are loving, caring and looks after the family. This affects children because boys like to be hyper and loud whereas girls should not be loud but quiet. The T.V has an impact on both genders because children have seen the advertisements and people are with the same sex (boys talking to boys and girls talking to girls), so in the children’s view they might think that is how it should be like and they stereotype other children from what they see from the media. How gender affects Home-corner? How play promotes children’s relationship with peers and adults in home -corner? Does resources of multicultural determine the gender of home corner? Reference List: Bartlett, S and Burton, D. Introduction to Education Studies. (2007) (2nd eds), SAGE publication LTD. Childcare and education, Third Edition, Tina Bruce and Carolyn Meggit, (hodder and Stoughton), 2004. Cole, M., Cole, S.R. & Lightfoot, C. (2005) ‘The Development of Children’ edn. 5, New York: Worth Publishers

Changes in Prisons in Twentieth Century in Britain Essay

In 20th century a lot of important changes was made in Britain prison system. A lot of crucial moves in this matter were made, which made changes to the system, and create the current system in prisons. A lot of reports and changes plans were made in this crucial for the matter period. The beginning for this period was made in 1895 with Gladstone report, which was highly critical of the current penal policy. It criticised existing regimes for ‘crushing self respect’ and ‘starving all moral instinct’. The report argued that reformation should coexist with deterrence and that rehabilitation should be given priority. Victorians focused upon repression and punishment. They used inflexible and punitive methods of control. Gladstone felt these should be replaced with more scientific methods of ‘treatment’. In addition, prison commissioners for the first time in 1898, defined the purpose of prison as the ‘humanisation of the individual’1. Sir Evelyn Ruggles-Brise insisted that ‘each man convicted of crime is to be regarded as an individual, as a separate entity of morality, who by the application of influences, of discipline, labour, education, moral and religious, backed up on discharge by a well organised system of patronage is capable of reinstatement in civic life’2. Weiner (1990) stated, â€Å"It is now recognised that primitive measures alone are not corrective, and effective reformation of criminals can only be attained by making our prisons true schools and moral hospitals†. Forsythe (1991) argues that new projects often fell short of the claims made for them. He says that in particular, the local and convict prisons ‘clung tenaciously to the concepts of measured punishment, moral culpability, limited deterrence and uniformly administered discipline’. It is a fact that the process of reform was often slow and not al all easy to perceive. From 1900 onwards a number of radical changes were made to the standard prison regime: 1) Unproductive labour was officially abandoned and replaced by prison industries and work considered ‘useful’, 2) The separate system was gradually eroded, allowing prisoners to work in association, 3) Education was increased and improved, 4) Internal discipline was maintained through a reward/punishment system related to the introduction of remission, 5) Specialists such as psychologists were appointed, 6) Prisoner categorisation was extended, 7) The Borstal system was introduced for juveniles, 8) A commitment to reformation became enshrined in the Prison Rule that stipulated that the purpose of imprisonment was to encourage prisoners to ‘lead a good and useful life’3, 9) During the 1930s the treadmill and arrows on convict uniforms were abolished. According to Garland (1985) the most radical reforms of this era took place outside of the prison system: 1) The introduction of the probation service, 2) Alternatives to custody emerged, 3) Construction of specialist institutions4. Garland views these major transformations as the beginnings of our current practice. Garland prefers to talk of developments in a whole realm of penality rather than prison reform5. Additionally, in 1908 Borstals6 were put on a statutory footing – implemented by Herbert Gladstone. The name Borstal comes from the village in Kent where the first Borstal scheme got its first full-scale trial. Borstals took English public schools as their model and their sentences were indeterminate. Criminals aged between 16 – 21 could be sent to Borstal for between one and three years. The prison Commission could release on licence at any time after six months (or three months for girls) and could also recall for misbehaviour. Borstal faltered after 1945 really because success rates were measured by reconviction rates. 1982 the administration of Margaret Thatcher formally abolished the Borstal and replaced it with the ‘Youth Custody Centre’ – with determinate sentences of imprisonment. Paterson7 replaced military type training with delegated authority and encouragement of personal responsibility. Staffs wore civilian clothing and were encouraged to get to know the ‘lads’ personally – considered revolutionary in the 1920s. The Borstal notion of training prisoners through personal relations, trust and responsibility gradually had an impact on the prison system as a whole. Two borstal elements were transplanted into the adult system with long lasting effects: 1. 1936 the first minimum-security (open) prison was established at New Hall, near Wakefield. 2. The housemaster was renamed ‘assistant governor’. The post war developments where about the Easier bail, Probation, Time to pay fines, a reduction in time to be served for a partial payment of fines, Reformatories for juveniles, Curtailment of imprisonment for debt and, More facilities for the insane and for habitual drunkards. In 1928 the then Home Secretary had described Dartmoor convict prison as ‘the cesspool of English humanity’ â€Å"I suppose there must be some residuum which no training or help will ever improve†8. Furthermore in 1948 Paterson and his colleagues framed Criminal justice Act. This was a highly influential piece of legislation. Borstal had represented the opposite view and resurrected the possibility of reformatory prison. Borstals and Detention Centres began to lose favour: neither for deterrence or reform was the short sentence acceptable. This is one of the elements in the English prison-crowding crisis – which became acute in the 1970s and 1980s and with which the country is still wrestling. Deterrence – Youth prisons known as Detention Centres were intended to subject boys (and half-heartedly, girls) who were thought to be on the verge of a custodial career to a last chance ‘short, sharp, shock’. Separate institutions for pre trial prisoners were planned but never created: these would be custodial but non-penal institutions. Due to the war, there were no funds and little sympathy for unconvinced detainees. McConville states that ‘thick skins and short purses ever since have ensured that English pre trial prisoners were treated worse than they were for virtually all of Victoria’s reign and much worse than their fellows who were convicted and sentenced’. The 1960s and early 1970s are seen as the beginning of the crisis years with British prisons. At last we can refer to System of Concentration. Mountbatten referred to the obvious advantages of an island prison holding all prisoners who posed a threat. A new prison was to be built on the Isle of Wight. This was rejected and the dispersal system became the preferred way of housing inmates. Since early 1966 new measurements of security have been implemented in selected prisons. Between 1969 and 1979 the prison service went through a number of riots. 70s and 80s dogged with accusations of brutality and violence directed at prisoners from the prison staff. Serious disturbances and riots had occurred in maximum-security prisons, which had led to reprisals against prisoners. British riots occurred within the new dispersal system: Parkhurst 1969, Albany 1971 & 1972, Gartree 1972, Hull 1976, and Gartree 1978. Hull riot will go down in history, as it was the prison staff who were ultimately tried and convicted. Special control units were introduced after the Gartree riot of 1972 for troublemakers over and above the existing segregation units. 1970s represent the years when reform and treatment had dwindled away and the whole prison system ran on the notion that ‘nothing works’. By 1978 both the courts and the prisons were in danger of serious collapse. Industrial relations were poor with prison staff. May Committee 1979 reported as a response to the previous troubled decade. They explored the issues of what the aim of imprisonment was; they agreed that the rhetoric of treatment and training had had its day. Finally, King and Morgan proposed the term ‘humane containment’: 1. Minimum use of custody 2. Minimum use of security 3. Normalisation. The current organisation of the prison system is heavily influenced by past practice. This has shaped the system that we now have today. So, it is difficult to assess progress of 20th Century. Harsh and punitive experience of prison overrides any idea of progressive treatment. Biggest rises can be seen from 1974 onwards. It is a fact that this matter is very important and serious for the society and has to be developed according to the needs of the society according to its progress at times. BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. Goffman, E. (1961) Asylums, Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. Harmondsworth 2. Jones, K. (1993) Asylums and After: A Revised History of the Mental Health Services from the Early Eighteenth Century to the 1990’s. 3. Morris, N and Rothman, D.J (eds). (1995) The Oxford History of the Prison. Oxford University Press. 4. Porter, R. (2002) Madness: A Brief History. Oxford University Press. 1 Weiner, 1990. 2 Ruggles-Brise quoted in Garland 1985. 3 Prison Rule 6 in 1949 but Prison Rule 1 since 1964. 4 such as Borstal where principles of rehabilitation were initiated. 5 â€Å"the prison was decentred, shifted from its position as the central and predominant sanction to become one institution among many in an extended grid of penal sanctions. Of course it continued to be of major importance, but it was now deployed in a different manner, for a narrower section of the criminal population and often as a back up sanction for other institutions, rather than a place of first resort†. 6 The Borstal System. 7 Alexander Paterson. 8 Sir William Joynson-Hicks.

A God Divided: Understanding the Differences Between Islam, Christianity and Judaism Essay

Christianity, Islam and Judaism, are the world’s greatest monotheist faiths. These faiths have some similarities and differences. In this paper analysis of what is common amongst Islam, Judaism and Christianity is analyzed at an in-depth level. Islam is the world’s largest religion after Christianity. It is a monotheistic faith that traces its roots in the Middle East. Many of its practices and beliefs are similarity with Christianity and Judaism. Judaism, Islam and Christianity, are referred collectively as â€Å"Abrahamic religion† since their history could be traced to God’s covenant with Abraham in the Hebrews Bible. It is believed that Prophet Muhammad met Christians and Jews in his lifetime and as such Islam has come into contact with similar monotheistic religions throughout its history (Paterson 216). The following paragraphs give the differences and similarities between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. It gives a detailed analysis of statistics, h istory, religious beliefs and origin of the greatest monotheistic faiths. The adherents of Christianity, Judaism and Islam respectively are 2billion Christians, 14 million Jews and over one billion Muslims. Compared to other faiths in the world, Christianity is the largest faith, then Islam and Judaism ranks 12 amongst world faiths. The major concentration of Islam is South East Asia and Middle East. Judaism concentration is in America, Europe and Israel. Christianity has a fast growth in Africa, Europe, North and South America. Islam’s sacred text is the Koran, for the Jews it is the bible and the Christians it is the Jewish bible and the New Testament. Other written authorities by these faiths are: hadith for the Muslims, Midrash, Talmud and Responsa for the Jews. The Christians consider especially the Catholics consider church councils, papal decrees, church fathers as having written authority. The three religions both have religious law (Catherwood 192). For the Christians, it is the Canon law, for Muslim it is the sharia law, for Jews it is the Halakhah. Another similarity amongst the three faiths is the presence of the clergy. For the Muslims the clergy is made up of imams, the Jews have rabbis and the Christian’s clergy comprises of the priests, ministers, bishops and pastors. The three faiths both have a house of worship. The Jews worship at the synagogue, the Muslims at the mosque and Christians at the church, cathedral or chapel. Christianity, Islam and Judaism also have a similarity in the sense that they have a specific day of worship. Christians worship on Sunday, Muslim on Friday and Jews on Saturday. For church and state, Islam the religion is integrated to the state while, for Christianity and Judaism, it is separate. For the origin and history of these faiths, Islam was founded in 622 CE, Christianity in c. 33 CE and the dates for beginning of Judaism are still unknown. Judaism and Christianity were founded in Palestine while Islam was founded in Saudi Arabia. Both faiths had founders. The founder of Christianity is Jesus, for Islam it is Muhammad and for Judaism it is Moses or Abraham. Both faiths have an original language. The original language of Islam was Arabic, for Judaism it was Hebrew and for Christianity, it was Aramaic and Greek. Both faiths had an early expansion plan. For Islam, in 12 years, the entire Arabic Peninsula had Islam and in a century, Islamism stretched throughout the Atlantic to China. Judaism had small expansion that was limited to the Palestine regions only. In 60 years, Christianity had expanded and had churches in cities in Turkey, Rome, Palestine and Greek; by the 4th century their expansion was throughout the entire Roman Empire. Another similarity amongst the three faiths is the major splits aspects. In Islam, the split was in 650 CE amongst the Shia and Sunni. For Judaism, in the 1800s CE the split was amongst the Reform and Orthodox. Amongst the Christians, the splits were two in1054 CE amongst the catholic and orthodox and in1500s CE amongst the catholic and Protestants. Similarity could also be made on the religious beliefs amongst Christians, Islam and Judaism. For Islam and Judaism, they are strictly monotheist while Christians are Trinitarian monotheist (David 37). Another common characteristic in the belief system of the three faiths is the ultimate reality where Christianity, Judaism and Islam have one God. The three faiths have names for God. Muslims refer to Him as Allah which is Arabic for God. Jews refer to Him as Yahweh and Elohim while Christians refer to him as the holy trinity and Yahweh. The three faiths both believe in other spiritual beings like for the Islam, they have demons, angels and jinn. The Jews and Christians have demons and angels. Another common characteristic of the three faiths religious beliefs are the revered humans. The Shia Muslims have prophets and imams while the Jews have prophets. The Christians have saints and church fathers. The religious views of the three faiths on the Jesus Christ’s identity are different and similar in some way. The Muslim believes that He is God’s true prophet whose message has been corrupted. The Jews consider him a false prophet while the Christians believe he is the son of God, the world’s savior and God incarnate. The Christians and Muslims believe the birth of Jesus was a virgin birth while the Jew believes it was just a normal birth. The Christians and Jews believe that Jesus died by crucifixion on the cross while the Muslims believe He did not die but ascended into heaven during crucifixion. On the resurrection of Jesus, the Muslims and Jews denied it while the Christians affirm it. On the second coming of Jesus, the Muslims and Christians affirmed it while the Jews deny it. The three faiths also have a similarity in terms of divine revelation where the Muslims believe it is through Muhammad as written in the Quran. The Jews believe through prophets as written in the bible and the Christians through prophets and Jesus as written in the bible. Another similarity of the three faiths in religious beliefs is their views on the sacred text. The Christians and the Muslims believe that the sacred text is inspired, and it is the literal word of God and some believe inerrant in original languages. For Judaism, the views vary. The three faiths also have a similarity on human nature. The Jews and Muslims believe on the equal ability for humans to do right or evil while the Christians believe on the original sin from Adam on the tendency towards evil. Another outstanding similarity amongst the three faiths is the religious belief on means of salvation. They all believe that means to salvation is the through righteous deeds. However, some Christians believe in sacraments while the Protestants believe the means to salvation is through faith only (David 307). They also have a similarity on God’s role in salvation. The Muslims and Christians believe it is the predestination while the Jews believe it is the divine revelation and forgiveness. The religious belief of Christians and Muslims on the good afterlife is similar as they believe in eternal paradise while the Jews views vary as it is either no afterlife or heaven. On bad afterlife, Christians and Muslim believe in eternal hell. For Catholics, they believe in temporary purgatory. The views of Jews on the bad afterlife vary from, reincarnation, eternal Gehenna or no afterlife. The view of the three faiths on fellow Abrahamic religions is similar and positive. The Muslims bel ieve that Christians and Jews are people of the book and are respected but have partial revelations and wrong beliefs. The Jews believe that Christianity and Islam are false interpretation of Judaism. Christians, on the other hand, believe that Islamism is a false religion and Judaism has false interpretation but is a true religion. Both Christians and Muslims believe in the presence of the clergy. The Muslim clergy is made up of imams while that of Christians comprises of bishops, ministers, priests and pastors. Both religions have a house of worship. Muslims worship at the mosque while Christians worship in a church, chapel or cathedral. Both Muslims and Christians have a specific day set aside for worship (Novak, 2001). Most Christians worship on Sunday or Saturday, while the Islamic day of worship is Friday. The Islamic religion is integrated to the state while that of Christianity is separate. Muhammad is believed to be the founder of the Islamic religion while the founder of Christianity is Jesus. The original language used by Muslims was Arabic and that of Christians was Aramaic and Greek. The two religions concur on the perspective of human nature whereby Muslims believe in the equal ability for humans to do right or evil while the Christians believe on the original sin from Adam on the trend towards evi l. Islam and Christianity have specific religious beliefs that are different. Muslims are strictly monotheist while Christians are Trinitarian monotheist. The two religions have a common feature in the belief system as evidenced by their ultimate reality and worship for one supernatural being-God. The only difference is the name they use for God. The Muslim name for God is Allah which is Arabic for God and that of Christians is the Holy Trinity or Yahweh. Another similarity of the two religions in religious beliefs is their views on the sacred text. The Christians and the Muslims believe that the sacred text is inspired, and it is the truthful word of God and some believe inerrant in original languages Another outstanding similarity amongst the Christians, Muslims and Jews is rituals. All the three faiths conduct rituals to fit in their faiths. In Christianity, amongst the Catholics, there is the sacrament, which includes the Holy Eucharist and Baptism. In Roman Catholicism, other rituals are included like: Confirmation, Penance, Holy Orders, Marriages and Anointment of the sick. Prayer is a part of the faith too. In Islamism, there are five fundamental rituals considered as the pillars of Islam. They include the Shaddah which is the faith profession, salat which is five times daily prayer, zakat which is alms giving, sawm which is fasting in Ramadan and hajj that is the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Jewish rituals include the circumcision of new born males, bar mitzvah that is a ceremony celebrating the adulthood of Jewish boys and shabat which is Sabbath observation. The religious views of the three faiths on the Jesus Christ’s identity are different and similar in some way. The Muslim believes that He is God’s true prophet whose message has been corrupted (Catherwood 192). The Jews consider him a false prophet while the Christians believe he is the son of God, the world’s savior and God incarnate. The Christians and Muslims believe the birth of Jesus was a virgin birth while the Jew believes it was just a normal birth. The Christians and Jews believe that Jesus died by crucifixion on the cross while the Muslims believe He did not die but ascended into heaven during crucifixion. On the resurrection of Jesus, the Muslims and Jews denied it while the Christians affirm it. On the second coming of Jesus, the Muslims and Christians affirmed it while the Jews deny it. The three faiths also have a similarity in terms of divine revelation where the Muslims believe it is through Muhammad as written in the Quran. The Jews believe through prophets as written in the bible and the Christians through prophets and Jesus as written in the bible. In conclusion, most believers in the current world still have no precise basis for their beliefs. It is important for both Muslims and Christians to have sound knowledge and perspectives in their beliefs. This is because there have been many attempts to redefine religion to fit in the current social agendas. References Catherwood, Christopher. A God Divided: Understanding the Differences Between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Eastbourne: David C Cook, 2007. Liepert, David. Muslim, Christian, and Jew: Finding a Path to Peace Our Faiths Can Share. Nottingham: Faith of Life Publishing, 2010. Paterson, Andrea C. Three Monotheistic Faiths – Judaism, Christianity, Islam: An Analysis and Brief History. New York: AuthorHouse, 2009. Source document

LLM DEGREE MARITIME LAW COLLISION SCENARIO Essay

LLM DEGREE MARITIME LAW COLLISION SCENARIO - Essay Example The second rule that relates to steam ships required steam vessels on different courses to pass on different port sides to reduce the risk of collision. The London Trinity House also laid down a rule for vessels under sail, which required sailing vessels on the tack to give way for a vessel on the starboard tack. This was followed by a collusion of the two Trinity rules of steam vessels through an 1846 act of parliament that saw their inclusion in the Navigation act. In 1858, there was an addition to the Navigation act which saw the addition of regulations on colored side lights for sailing vessels and fog signals for both sailing and steam vessels. In 1863 however, there was a complete change to the Navigation act which saw a new set of rules drawn by the British Board of Trade in consolation with the French government: vessels that were meeting end-on or near end –on were to alter their course to starboard. Every vessel that was overtaking another was to keep away from the v essel being overtaken. By the end of the year 1864, these regulations and others were adopted by over 30 maritime countries including the United States and Germany as Maritime articles.1 1Simon Baughen, Shipping Law (London: Routledge, 2009), 21. The year 1880 saw minor changes to the articles with a requirement for whistle signals to be given by steam vessels as a way of indicating the direction they were taking and therefore avoid collision. 1884 also saw a minor addition of an article that specified the signals that could be used by a vessel in distress, thus bringing the total number of articles to 27. In 1889 for the first time, there was a conference in Washington that sought to consider the regulations for collision at sea. New provisions were put in place requiring a stand on vessel to keep her speed and course. Vessels were also to avoid crossing in front of the other vessel and steamship permission to carry a second white light was also included. Another Maritime conferenc e was held in 1910, which mainly insisted on the Washington regulations with only some minor changes. Another international conference on Safety of life at Sea was held in 1948, which saw minor revisions which came into effect in 1954. This was followed by another international conference in 1960 that saw an addition of a new paragraph in the exiting regulations and better definition of the wordings. In 1972 COLREGs, the article was designed to replace the collision Regulations of 1960. There were several minor changes that were made in the Collision acts in the years following 1972 until in 1995 when the Merchant Shipping Act was introduced, that sought to consolidate the shipping acts from 1894-1995 and other enactments. Convention on International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at sea (1972) governs the Merchant Shipping Act on all water crafts, either personal or public, which is classified as a ship.2 2Susan Hodges, Law Of Marine Insurance (London: Routledge, 1996), 23. Main 1. Who do colregs apply to? This is well stipulated in rule of the preventing sea collisions convention which defines the application of the rules as: these rules apply to all vessels upon the high seas and the waters that are connected with navigable seagoing vessels. Nothing in the rules so specified shall interfere with the special rules that have been made by any authority. Nothing in the rules shall interfere with the special rules that may have been made by the government or any particular state. Traffic

Choose your favourite decade in make up and hair and explain why Essay

Choose your favourite decade in make up and hair and explain why - Essay Example or Miss. Coming out of the confusion of the seventies with its disco and punk rock, the eighties became increasingly concerned with symbols of power and business. This was encouraged by the privatization of industries and the de-regulation of the stock market introduced as a part of Thatcherism. As a result, the prevailing attitude regarding the economy became one of every man for himself. Electronics were gaining in popularity in many areas of life – synthesizers and keyboards in music, the introduction of the music video and digital animation, computers in the workplace and video games from the arcade becoming available in the home. New innovations in technology including the ‘nuclear age’, innovations in hair gel and mousse and increased use of personal technology made the science fiction shows on television seem possible just around the corner. All of these elements combined together to create a vibrant and outspoken era in hair, fashion and makeup that thrill s me with its energy and innovative symbolism. One of the major influences on 80s fashions was the designer Vivienne Westwood, who developed her talents in the thick of the 1960s and 1970s rock and roll movement in Britain. Her fashions exemplify the sexual freedom and aggressive stance of female expression emerging in the women’s movements that rocked the world at this time. Through her early designs, Westwood discovered that â€Å"there was a dramatic potential in the clothes themselves that could be heightened: laden with associations, biker gear links sexuality, violence and death, in a twentieth century archetype† (Savage, 2001: 28). She began a new line of clothes that were based on these ideas by adding metal studs, chicken bones, chains, zippers and other gear to the clothing she made. Doing this, Westwood became the mother of the punk rock fashions (Savage, 2001: 28). These designs included a heavy use of the corset as a fetish object, frequently making it in leather,

Negative side on fast food Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Negative side on fast food - Essay Example urant Association (32) indicate that this number was projected to increase by 4.2 percent in 2002, which converts to about $130.1 billion worth of sales. National Restaurant Association (76) showed that 3 out of ten consumers agreed that fast-food or food at a restaurant establishment are important to their way of life and 3 of 5 consumers reported that they had would eat fast-food in future about as more often as they previously did. Fast food is more popular and more preferred by the adolescents who visit a fast-food restaurant at least twice per week (Lin 34; Guthrie 56). In a survey consisting of 4,750 students aging between 11 and 18 indicated that about 76 percent ate at fast-food outlet during the two weeks before the survey was conducted (Harnack 23). This survey indicated that fast-food consumption was linked to higher intake of hamburger, fried potato, soft drinks, pizza, and lower intake of vegetables, milk and fruits. Fast food has high energy and fat content although fas t-food restaurants have started diversifying to incorporate broader range of hamburgers, foods, and French fries. A small order of fast-food such as French fries contains about 10 grams and 200 calories of fat, and a hamburger contains about 35 grams and 600 calories. Consequently, many Americans have raised their concerns about the negative health impact fast food not only for adolescents and children but also for adult consumers (Lin and Frazao 45; Jeffrey 24). Advocating for the reduction of fast-food consumption in the United States, this paper discusses the negative effects of fast food. A recent study showed that most Americans have realized that stopping at the fast-food restaurants for fast food is not a worth decision (United States Department of Agriculture, Food Survey  Research Group 45). This study indicate that Americans prefer fast foods to conventional foods for convenience. The study notes that fast food are readily available, cheap and save on time. It is widely

Imperial China 1600 to 1900 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Imperial China 1600 to 1900 - Research Paper Example Therefore the imperial China from 1600-1900 is defined by about 44 years under the Ming dynasty and the rest under the Qing dynasty. The period from 1600 to 1644 marked the downfall of the Ming dynasty, which had earlier established a strong internal governance system in the country. Threats from external imperialists who partitioned and reduced the Chinese territory and devastating earthquake strained the Ming dynasty greatly and it eventually succumbed to the Qing dynasty. According to Johan, one of the most enduring remnant of the Ming dynasty is the China’s Great Wall that was strategically build to protect the country from foreign invaders(73). On ascending to power, the Qing dynasty made drastic changes in the social and political system of the country. Initially it concentrated on reviving the social economy and this required changes on previous structures that had been entrenched by the Ming dynasty. The reforms strengthened the central governance and the imperial rulings (Elman and Woodside 63). Johan notes that by the mid of 18 century China had achieved remarkable economic and scientific developments credited to prudent economic and political administration by the Qing rulers (104). China experienced a long period of peace and stability after the Qing dynasty ascended to power. This enabled expansion of Chinese society in virtually all realms. For instance, the population grew tremendously and other economic sectors developed (Susan 86). In addition, China opened its borders to international trade becoming a trading partner of several European countries, including Great Britain. China was an important source of silk, tea and porcelain (Susan 99). During Qing dynasty, the influence of Chinese art spread in the western countries and other trading partners. Moreover, China expanded its territory courtesy of a

Madoffs Fraud Case Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Madoffs Fraud Case - Research Paper Example He said that he earned the capital he invested in the business from Far Rockaway as lifeguard earnings. His firm was a major contributor to the growth of Nasdaq and boasts of succeeding in creating a system where brokers who mostly had traded in the New York Stock Exchange could do more business with the Nasdaq. When news that the business executive had been defrauding the investors and that the firm was nothing but a scam went public, it became a shock for most people. The scheme was a well-organized plan by a number of people to convince the regulators, investors, and visitors in the firms’ office that trading was going on while in real since it was not. In fact, there was no trading in the company for most of its life, with Mr. DiPascali an employee, revealing that he discovered that the company was not trading at all since the late 1980s. In addition, the firm also used a program that generated numbers randomly to choose the people to award-trading orders to, which happene d in varying intervals and in different increments. In such a case, it is unlikely for the investors to face charges for being victims of injustice (Efrati, 2009). However, Efrati, (2009) explains that two of the biggest investors in the firm, who had invested and trusted the firm with billions of dollars, got involved in the case, and the prosecution dragged them individually as well as their foundations to court to face charges. Instead of winning sympathy from the prosecutors and the judge, as they faced the charge of conspiring with the managers to defrauding other investors in the company. In a Manhattan court, Peter Madoff confessed among other crimes that he had faked documents and lied to regulators, which helped his elder brother Bernard Madoff to perpetuate the biggest of all investment frauds. The multi-billion dollar fraud scheme, known as the Ponzi scheme, defrauded investors of their invested capital during the collapse of Benard L. Madoff Investment Securities LLC inv estment firm owned by Bernard Madoff. According to his confession in the court, Peter said that the investment sham caught him in shock when his brother told him the truth in the December of 2008 but said that he helped to divert the firm’s remaining funds to friends and family of the Madoffs. The employees forged documents that created a wrong impression of the company as trading and lured them into getting into the contracts and later lost their money. During his confession, Peter apologized for his irresponsible behavior, which is nothing, compared to the number of losses that investors suffered under his watch. For Peter, pleading guilty for his actions did not let him walk free after the judge sentenced him to 10 years imprisonment (Bray & Lauricella, 2009). The sentence also requires him to forfeit all his personal assets that include a Ferrari and more than 10 million dollars in cash. The sentence did not spare his wife and daughter, where he is required to forfeit the ir assets too. According to Peter, Bernard always acted as the boss, without giving his younger brother a chance for dialog. Despite this, he had an option of choosing not to honor his brother’s commands and do the right thing. He contributed to losses estimated at 17 billion dollars, money owned by the company on behalf of the investors, of which he promised to recover 11 billion.  

Explaining the importance of mentoring and counselling techniques in Essay

Explaining the importance of mentoring and counselling techniques in the appraisal process and their relevance in HR - Essay Example In this paper, the process of mentoring and counselling in relation to HRM (Human Resource Management) has been discussed. It seeks to explain about the differences and similarities linking the two factors and its significance in appraisal method. The mentor and counsellor apply certain techniques to conduct the appraisal of employees; these techniques have been included in this paper. The paper also covers the negative impact of implementing poor mentoring and counselling techniques towards appraisal method and its improvement methods have also been suggested. In this paper, an experience of a staff appraisal method is discussed. Mentoring and counselling has a significant role in human resource management of an organisation. The program of mentoring facilitates in ‘career development’, ‘personal support’, ‘career advancement’, ‘learning and development’, ‘increased confidence’ and ‘assistance and feedbackâ€℠¢. Career development of mentee is observed to achieve crucial advantage through mentoring related programs. The mentees attain new expertise and develop to be competent in their performance. Due to mentoring related program both mentee and mentor is benefitted. ... The organisational communication along with culture is also improved owing to mentoring program (Ehrich, 1999). The human resource manager or counsellor counsels the employees if he or she is stressed for certain reasons and their performance lowered as they are related to the productivity of organisation. In an organisation, counsellor may be either supervisor or manager. They can counsel human resource manager and training manager and in the meantime these office bearers can counsel staff member because of the position they hold. The different human resource roles that are related to counselling of employees involve career improvement, performance, redundancies, promotion, transfers, and retirement among others. The human resource of an organisation is extensively in connection with counselling activities because through this technique the employees can dispose of problems arising in their life. The counselling is organised for several issues that may have a negative impact on empl oyees’ growth (Mwosa, n.d.). Mentoring facilitates experienced employees to advance further in their area of knowledge by regular reassessing and enhancing the skill. In mentoring, two individuals are involved: mentor and mentee. Mentor meets the requirement of mentee and thus enhances the special skills of mentee (Triple Creek, n.d.). Mentoring is considered as an efficient way to transfer knowledge as well as skill rapidly among employees and to motivate them in order to cooperate in an organisation. This process is a long term procedure and possesses broad perspective. It also focuses on the entire career of employees in an organisation. Counselling is essentially related to the emotional state of employees and it treats the emotional problem associated with employees. This

Diabetes Research Essay Example for Free

Diabetes Research Essay Diabetes is often referred to by doctors as diabetes mellitus. This describes a group of diseases in which the person has high blood glucose (blood sugar). This could be because either insulin production is inadequate or the body’s cells do not respond properly to insulin. There are 3 types of diabetes: 1)Type 1 Diabetes: The body does not produce insulin. People usually develop type 1 diabetes in early adulthood or teenage years. Approximately 10% of all diabetes cases are type 1, it is nowhere near as common as type 2. Patients with type 1 diabetes will need to take insulin injections for the rest of their life and carry out regular blood tests and a special diet to ensure proper blood-glucose levels. 2)Type 2 Diabetes: The body does not produce enough insulin for proper function, or the cells in the body do not react to insulin. Some people may be able to control their type 2 diabetes symptoms by losing weight, a healthy diet, and doing lots of exercise. They would also have to monitor their blood-glucose levels. Although the patients will most likely end up having to take insulin in tablet form because type 2 diabetes is typically a progressive disease. 3)Gestational Diabetes: This type affects woman during pregnancy, some woman have very high levels of glucose in their bodies and are unable to produce enough insulin. The majority of gestational diabetes patients can control their diabetes with exercise and diet. Undiagnosed or uncontrolled gestational diabetes can raise the risk of complications during childbirth. History For 2,000 years diabetes has been recognized as a devastating and deadly disease. In the 17th century a London physician, Dr. Thomas Willis,  determined whether his patients had diabetes or not by sampling their urine. If it had a sweet taste he would diagnose them with diabetes mellitus- honeyed diabetes. In the early 20th century, diabetologists such as Dr. Frederick Allen prescribed low calorie diets-as little as 450 calories per day for his patients. His diet prolonged the life of people with diabetes but kept them weak and suffering from near starvation. In his book, The Discovery of Insulin, Michael Bliss describes the painful wasting death of many people with diabetes before insulin: Food and drink no longer mattered, often could not be taken. A restless drowsiness shaded into semi-consciousness. As the lungs heaved desperately to expel carbonic acid (as carbon dioxide), the dying diabetic took huge gasps of air to try to increase his capacity. Air hunger the doctors called it, and the whole process was sometimes described as internal suffocation. The gasping and sighing and sweet smell lingered on as the unconsciousness became a deep diabetic coma. At that point the family could make its arrangements with the undertaker, for within a few hours death would end the suffering. Then in 1921 something truly miraculous occurred in Ontario, Canada. A young surgeon Frederick Banting, and his assistant Charles Best, kept a severely diabetic dog alive for 70 days by injecting it with a murky concoction of canine pancreas extract. Since insulins discovery, medical breakthroughs continued to prolong and ease the lives of people with diabetes. In 1935 Roger Hinsworth discovered there were two types of diabetes: insulin sensitive (type I) and insulin insensitive (type II). By differentiating between the two types of diabetes, Hinsworth helped open up new avenues of treatment. In the 1950s, oral medications-sulfonylureas were developed for people with type II. These drugs stimulate the pancreas to produce more insulin, helping people with type II diabetes keep tighter control over their blood sugars. In the 1960s urine strips were developed, and Becton-Dickinson introduced the single use syringe in 1961. This greatly reduced the amount of pain from injections as well as the time-consuming ritual of boiling needles and glass syringes. Chemistry behind diabetes Diabetes is characterized by elevated levels of glucose in the body. The management of insulin therapy in relation to carbohydrates can be hard to deal with for most diabetics. Carbohydrates lead to increased blood sugar. Once digested, carbohydrates break down into glucose molecules, which are then converted into ATP in the cells with insulin. Too little insulin causes an excess of unconverted glucose, and too much insulin causes low blood sugar. Carbohydrates are necessary when a diabetic is experiencing hypoglycemia to compensate for the excess insulin in the blood stream, which can lead to serious consequences, such as seizure or even death. Social Impacts Diabetes is more than a health condition. For most people, it’s a new way of life, and it affects relationships in all areas as much as it affects eating and physical activity. One challenge facing a diabetes student is the ongoing medical care required during school hours. It is up to the parents to make sure the school officials, nurses, and teachers are educated and comply with their child’s needs. Another challenge is helping the child fit in. often other children have no knowledge or understanding of diabetes and with a perception that the child is being treated differently this could lead to teasing and possibly bullying. Sports are an important part of many people’s lives. Teamwork and physical activity are vital parts of a well-rounded life. Diabetes doesn’t have to alter that Exercise is essential in diabetes management, and participation in sports can provide this and other benefits. But it does require some extra effort by the diabetic. Economic impacts Diabetes is a disease that occurs worldwide, and therefore its economic impact is experienced globally. With increasing concern among providers about the rising cost of health care, economic assessments of the impact of various diseases are growing in importance. This imposes a large economic burden on the individual, national healthcare system and economy. Environmental impacts Environmental factors appear to play an important role in the pathogenesis of childhood-onset of type 1 diabetes. Breastfeeding, the early presence or lack of certain foods, birth weight, childhood over-nutrition, and negative stress events have been shown to be related to the prevalence of type 1 diabetes. More studies are starting to show that pollution can affect the symptoms of diabetes by increasing inflammation and contributing to weight gain. People who live in urban areas are more likely to breathe polluted air, which is believed to be a factor in insulin resistance. Moreover, diabetics have a harder time controlling blood flow during times where air pollution is increased leading to intensified cardiovascular problems.

Concepts of Electrical Principles

Concepts of Electrical Principles Everything is made of atoms; in turn atoms consist of a combination of minuscule particles known as neutrons, protons and electrons. The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons while electrons exist in a cloud surrounding and rotating around the nucleus. The electron and proton are capable of holding an electrical charge; electrons hold negative charges and protons positive charge. We know that like charges repel each other while opposite charges have the opposite effect in attracting one another. If we wish to measure the flow of electrons around a circuit we refer to this as a measure of electrical current. Electric current is represented by the symbol I and is a quantity of charge carriers passing a given point in a circuit. This is calculated as coulomb of charge passing a defined point in one second, which as a unit is given the name ampere abbreviated to A. This can be measured using an instrument called an ammeter which when connected in series with a circuit to measure the current passing through it. For electric current to flow around a circuit there must be a voltage across it. Voltage is a measure of the potential difference (p.d), which acts like electric pressure pushing the current around the circuit. The pressure can be read in a circuit by a voltmeter, which must be applied through the resistance. This happens when there is a deficit of electrons in a conductive material and this is then connected to another material with excess electrons. This is the case in a battery where chemicals allow electrons to flow from the negative terminal that contains an excess of electrons and the positive terminal containing positively charged protons. This happens because opposite charges attract one another. 1.4 Resistance This flow of current faces opposition from resistance; this is a quantity of how much the electrons bump against the particular conductor they are flowing through. Some materials conduct electricity better then others. Materials that have a high resistance conduct electricity less well. Resistance limits the flow of electrons between the positive and negative ends of a circuit. We measure resistance in units called ohms (ÃŽÂ ©). One ohm is defined as the amount of resistance you have in a conductor when applying one volt of electrical pressure creates one amp of current. 1.5 Energy When electrons sit high in there shells surrounding the nucleus they have electrical energy. This energy can be harnessed to do work in various ways, if the electrons bump into atoms this can cause them to move around which creates heat, they create electromagnetic waves as they travel which can use there attraction and repulsion to move things magnetically, and if the electrons move down there electric shells they give up excess energy giving out light in the manner of photons. 1.6 Charge Carriers The sub-atomic particles that carry charge are known as protons and electrons as previously discussed electrons are negatively charges while protons are positively charged. The unit to measure the quantity of electrical charge (Q) is the coulomb (C) where 1 coulomb of charge is equal to charged electrons. If one coulomb of charge passes a point in one second we say this is one ampere of current. We can use our knowledge of math to deduct that if then if we take (I) as the current in amperes and t as the time in seconds then: Electrical Principles/ Kirchhoffs Laws 2.1 Potential Difference The pull created by the difference in charge between the two sides of a circuit is called the potential difference, which is otherwise known as the voltage. Voltage sources that have higher attractive forces are known to have a higher potential difference. The units we use to measure voltage/potential difference is known as the ampere which is explained in section 1.6 as one coulomb of charge passing a given point in one second. 2.2 Ohms Law a) Ohms law relates Voltage, Current and Resistance in the following equation: I = current in amperes V = voltage in volts R = Resistance in Ohms This law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage applied to it and inversely proportional to the resistance. b) For a 5m length of wire with a resistance of 600 ohms we can apply this law. If you where to half the length of wire you would half the resistance as there would be half as much material for the electrons to bump into. c) If we where to increase the length of the wire to 8m we can see that the resistance increases as create more material for the electrons to crash into. d) To find the length of the same wire when the resistance is 420 ohms we do the following sum: So we can say that the same wire with a resistance of 420ohms would measure 3.5 meters. 2.3 Resistance Variation If a piece of wire has a cross sectional area of 2mm2 and a resistance of 300 ohms Find the resistance of the same length of wire if the cross sectional area is 5mm2. Given that resistance is inversely proportional to cross sectional area, increasing the cross sectional area increases the flow of electrons, we can calculate this mathematically as such: b) Find the cross sectional area of a wire of the same length and material of resistance 750. 2.04 Calculate the resistance of a 2km length of aluminium overhead power cable if the cross sectional area of the cable is 100mm2. Take the resistivity of aluminium to be 0.03 x 10-6 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦m Show the equation you are using in your answer. We know that and that if we combine these rules we can create the formula . With one more piece of information we will be able to take the material used into account. This is done by including the resistivity of the material into the relationship treating it as a constant of proportionality. We use the symbol à Ã‚  (Greek rho). The final equation will look like this: 2.5 Power If electrical energy (W) = Charge (Q) x Voltage (V) then :- a) Show the equation for power in terms of current( I) and voltage (V). Electrical Energy (W) = Charge (Q) x Voltage (V) W = Q x V Power (P) = Current (I) x Voltage (V) P= V x I b) Using Ohms law explain how power can also be expressed in terms of I and R, and, V and R. P= V2/R P = I2R C) An e.m.f. of 250V is connected across a circuit resistance and the electric current through the circuit resistance is 4A. What is the power dissipated in the circuit? 2.6 a) To discover the potential difference across the winding we use Ohms law as follows: Voltage (V) = Current (I) X Resistance (R) V= 5A X 100ÃŽÂ © V = 500V b) If we wish to find the power dissipated by that same coil we use our equations for power: Power (W) = Voltage (V) X Current (I) P= 500V x 5A P = 2500 Watts 2.7 A 12V battery is connected a load having a resistance of 40ÃŽÂ ©. a) Determine the current flowing in the load. For this we must again use Ohms law rearranged to make I the subject. I = V /R I = 12V / 40ÃŽÂ © I = 0.3 Amps Determine the power consumed by the load. To calculate this we use our power equation again using the figure we just calculated for the current. P = VI P = 12V x 0.3A P = 3.6 watts c) Determine the electrical energy dissipated in 2 minutes. Electrical Energy (W) = Charge (Q) x Volts (V) Current is charge per second and we discovered that this circuit runs 0.3Amps, finding how much energy is dissipated in 2mins first requires changing minutes to seconds. 2mins = 120 seconds W = Q x V W = (120 X 0.3) x 12V W = 432 Watts 2.8 a) Explain what is meant by one unit of electricity with reference to Electrical Charge (Q), Voltage (V) and Time (T). A standard unit of electricity is usually calculated as a Kilowatt-hour (KWh), Which is 1000 watts of electricity dissipated for one hour. SEE MY BOOK ON THIS b) Determine the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance 20à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ when a current of 10A flows through it. For this situation we are provided with the current at 10A and the resistance at 20à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ therefore we can use our power equation to find how much power is dissipated. P = I2R P = 102 x 20 P = 2000 watts c) If the fire is on for 6 hours determine the energy used and the cost if 1 unit of electricity costs 13p. Firstly we take the power consumption in watts from we determined in question b then apply the following equation to it: Cost per Unit x Watts / 1000 Multiply the per-hour cost by the running time. 26p x 6h =  £1.56p 2.9 Analyse this resistors in series circuit: a) Express V in terms of V1, V2 and V3. VT = V1 + V2 + V3 Voltages in this circuit will each have a different value if the resistances are different but if you add all the values together they should in total equal the supply voltage. b) Express the total circuit resistance (RT) in terms of R1, R2 and R3. Resistances in series always add together. This can be expressed as: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 c) Express in terms of I what the electric current is through the ammeter-A, R1, R2 and R3. In a series circuit the current is the same in any part of the circuit so readings using the ammeter would be the same as any reading taken on each of the resisters R1, R2 or R3. 2.10 A 12V battery is connected across a circuit having three series-connected resistors of resistances 4à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦, 9à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ and 11à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦. a) Determine the electric current through the circuit. As this is a series circuit the current would be the same throughout the circuit, to calculate this we must use ohms law, first we know that resistances add together in a series circuit to give the resistance total. 4à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ + 9à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ + 11à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ = RT = 24à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ Then we must implement Ohms law: I =V/R I = 12V / 24à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ I = 0.5A b) Determine the p.d. across the 9à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ resistor. Via Ohms law and our previous current calculation, we calculate the voltage across the 9à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ resister. V2 = I x R1 V2 = 0.5 x 9 V2 = 4.5 Volts c) Determine the power dissipated in the 11à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ resistor. P = I2R P3 = 0.52 x 11 P3 = 2.75 W 2.11 Two resistors are connected in series across a 24V supply with a flow of electric current of 3A within the circuit. If one of the resistors has a resistance of 2à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ determine: a) The value of the other resistor. R2 = RT R1 R2 = 8 2 R2 = 6à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ Trusting in Ohms law we can find the value of the other resistor using the values given for total voltage and current and knowing that resistances in series add together to give the resistance total. RT = V/I RT = 24/3 RT = 8à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ b) The p.d. across the 2à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ resistor. Solving this requires Ohms law. V1 = I x R1 V1 = 3A x 2ÃŽÂ © V1 = 6 Volt c) How much energy is used if the circuit is connected for 50 hours. P=VI P=24v x 3 P=72W 50h = 180000s W = Q x V Q (charge) = I (current) x t (time) W =180000 x 72 W = 12960000 Watt/joules 2.12 Analyse the resistors in parallel circuit. a) In terms of V, express the p.d. across R1, R2, and R3. V= I1R1 = I2R2 = I3R3 We see that the voltage is the same across each resistor. b) Express the total load current I in terms of I1, I2, and I3. 2.13 For the circuit shown below, determine: a) The reading on the ammeter, In a purely parallel circuit the voltage will be the same in each branch of the circuit. V=I x R V = I1 x R1 V = 8 x 5 = 40V I = V/R3 I = 40/20 = 2A b) The value of resistor R2. We now have all the values for I, = 11 8 2 = 1A R2 = V/I2 R2 = 40/1 R2 = 40à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ 2.14 Find the value of resistor that can replace the six resistors in this diagram. We know that resistances in series can be added together to give the total resistance, in this example we have a parallel network of resisters in series with 3 more resisters. Treating this parallel network as a single resistance will allow us to calculate the total resistance of the circuit easily. Convert the resistances to conductance: Adding them together gives us the total conductance 0.52G This can then easily be converted to resistance. Now the parallel circuit can be treated as a single resister, we can add all the resistors together and find the total resistance of the circuit giving us the value of a resister we can replace it with. 2.15 Analyse the circuit below and determine: The currents I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, and I6 We can treat the two sets of parallel resisters as single resisters if we first convert them to conductance and then for each add the conductances together then convert back to resistance. For the set of 3 parallel resisters: The Set of two: The three resisters can be added to give our RT We can now add these conductances together giving us our total conductance for the set of two resistors. This can then be converted to a combined resistance easily: We now proceed to do this for the set of three resistors: We now have the equivalent of 3 resistors in series, which we know can be added together to create a single resistance: Now that we know the total resistance for the circuit we can find I1 easily using Ohms law: We must now find the voltages V1, V2 and V3 in order to later find the currents through the network branches. =20V And now V2 Next I will calculate V3 We can check this by adding all of the voltages to see if they equal the total voltage we have been given. This is over by 1.4V but I believe this is due to the compound effects of the rounding bug and that the calculations made are correct. We know that the current through I1 is 5A now we will work out the currents through the branches of the parallel resistances using Ohms law: 2.16 State Kirchoffs first (current) law. Show that the currents I2 and I3 combined are equal to the input current I1 Kirchhoffs Current Law states: The sum of the currents entering a particular point must be zero. So all currents entering a point must equal all the currents flowing from it. Therefore we must now think of the currents flowing from the junction as negative currents. i1  +  i2  +  i3  +  i4  = 0 Observing our circuit we see 11A of current going in, this means that the same amount of current must come out. Therefore To prove this we calculate I1 and I2 using Ohms law I2= V/R I2=10/10 I2= 1A I3= V/R I3=10/1 I3= 10A We can now calculate I1 expecting it to equal our given figure of 11A. I1= I2 + I3 I1=10+1 I1=11A 2.17 Using Kirchhoffs first (current) law, calculate current I1 and I2 in the network below. Kirchhoffs first current law states that the sum of the current entering a point must be zero. Examining the junctions we have 1.2A and 4.5A flowing in and 0.6A and I1 are flowing out. 1.2 +4.5 = I1+0.6 1.2 + 4.5 0.6 = I1 I1= 5.1A For I2 there are three currents flowing in but none flowing out. This must mean that the last value is a negative value. 5.1+3 + I3 = 0 8.1 + I3 =0 I3 = 8.1A 2.18 The potential divider shown below is used as a simple voltage calibrator. Determine the output voltage produced by the circuit: (a) When the output terminals are left open-circuit (i.e. when no load is connected); We can solve this using the Voltage Divider Rule. Connecting a resistor to V-out will create a parallel resistor network. We can use the product over sum formula to find the comparable resistance because there are only two resistors. to 1 dp With this information we can calculate the voltage. V=0.2V 1dp 2.19 A moving coil meter requires a current of 1 mA to provide full-scale deflection. If the meter coil has a resistance of 100à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ and is to be used as a milliammeter reading 5 mA full-scale, determine the value of parallel shunt resistor required. REVIEW ME Make the meter useable over 5ma by adding a resistor to switch the range of the meter like you would on a none autorangeing multimeter. This is done by adding a resistor IN PARALLEL with the meter. 2.20 Two resistors, one of 15 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ and one of 5 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ are connected in parallel. If a current of 2 A is applied to the combination, determine the current flowing in each resistor. As there is only two resistors we can use our product over sum equation to find the total value of resistance the parallel network provides. Using this we are now able to find the voltage. Now we can find the current through each branch, I1: I=V/R I1 = 7.5/15 I1 = 0.5A I2: I=V/R I2 = 7.5/5 I 2= 1.5A 2.21 A switched attenuator comprises five 1 kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ resistors wired in series across a 5V d.c. supply. If the output voltage is selected by means of a single-pole four-way switch, sketch a circuit and determine the voltage produced for each switch position 1KÃŽÂ © 1KÃŽÂ © 5V Switch 1KÃŽÂ © 1KÃŽÂ © Vout Answer: 1V, 2V, 3V, 4V, 5V 2.22 With the aid of a diagram, briefly explain in your own words Kirchhoffs second law. In an electronic loop the sum of all the voltages around the circuit taking polarity into account will equal zero. For example if you where to travel around a circuit following conventional current taking the voltage at each resistance including the battery and added all of those voltages up including negative voltages the sum would equal zero. We would see that the battery would give the circuit charge a EMF while all of the resistances would dissipate this force. 2.23 Using Kirchhoffs second law, determine the value of e.m.f. (E) in the circuit below. E+5=14 E= 14-5 E=9V 2.24 Using Kirchhoffs laws together with the use of simultaneous equations, determine the current flowing in each branch of the network shown in the circuit below. Here we are presented with essentially two loops of current where readings in the connecting part of the loops will be affected by one another. We will use Kirchoffs laws to solve the problem by first treating the current as two separate loops. We use simultaneous equations to find our two unknowns I1 and I2 . Loop Two E2 = I2r2 + (I1 + I2)R 2 = I2 + 4I1 + 4I2 2 = 4I1 + 5I2 Loop One E1 = I1r1 + (I1 + I2)R 4 = 2I1 + 4I1 + 4I2 4 = 6I1 + 4I2 6I1 = 4 4I2 Substitute I1 into the second loop. Amps As we have obtained I1 we can now work on I2 4 = 6I1 + 4I2 R=I1+I2 2.25 Analyse the circuit shown below and determine the following parameters a) The current in each branch of the circuit. I1 = I2 = 1.233A b) The voltage across the load resistance. 0.426 c) The power dissipated by the load resistor. P= d) Use computer software to verify your results. 26) A temperature sensor is connected into a bridge measuring circuit as shown. If the value of the sensor is 110R at 0oC and it increases by 0.2% for every degree the temperature rises and falls a corresponding amount if the temperature drops. What voltage will be output on the voltmeter when the temperature is :- (a) 25oC (b) 100oC (c) -40oC Build the circuit using Multisim and demonstrate your answer to part (b) is correct. First we will calculate how the changes in temperature will affect the resistance of the sensor: Now we must find the voltage for the left hand side of this wheatstone bridge. V1=3V And now the right hand side of the bridge, this will vary each time as the resistance of the sensor changes. Firstly we will be doing question a) with the sensor representing 115.1ÃŽÂ ©: The reading on the voltmeter will be the difference between those two calculations b) Now we continue the calculations for the second value of resistance for the sensor. With the sensor representing 132ÃŽÂ ©: The reading on the voltmeter will be the difference between those two calculations c) Now we continue the calculations for the third value of resistance for the sensor. With the sensor representing 132ÃŽÂ ©: The reading on the voltmeter will be the difference between those two calculations 2.27 For the Wheatstone Bridge circuit below, what value of R1 will produce a balanced bridge? Using your calculated answer build the circuit in Multisim and demonstrate your answer is correct. 2.28 A 1m long resistive wire of uniform cross section is connected to a 6V source as shown. If a sliding contact is placed 0.35m from one end and connected to an unknown e.m.f. then no current is measured on the ammeter. A) What it the value of the unknown e.m.f.? This can be solved using the voltage division rule.